The Anatomy Wiki - Recently Updated Pages

Snow College Anatomy

flattail — Thu, 05 Nov 2009 10:44:21 CST

Nervous System
I archived the Muscle Slides along with Skeletal & Articulation Slides

Muscle Slides

flattail — Thu, 05 Nov 2009 09:51:31 CST

If you are looking for additional muscle resources, check out the pages included on this wiki, such as Introduction to muscles, Axial muscles, and Appendicular muscles (and watch the side bar to be aware of subpages).

I am going to post Slideshare presentations of the slides we showed in class. There is no audio--you just click through them. You can view them small but they look even better full-screen.

I moved all the slides that were here to Slides from the First Test so we can have just the current slides on this page. Skeletal & Articulation Slides have also been archived.

Arteries and veins

ricec — Wed, 04 Nov 2009 14:35:19 CST

This Link shows what the arteries actually look like on a living person in surgery

Learning Objectives

Identify all the major arteries and veins of the circulatory system and show how they connect.

Trace a drop of blood from your left middle toe to your right middle finger.

Describe the structure of arteries and veins and explain the difference between the two.

Explain the significance of blood being contained within a closed system
How your heart works. How stuff works/heart

The circulatory system is extremely important for sustaining life. Its proper functioning is responsible for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to all cells, as well as the removal of carbon dioxide and waste products, maintenance of optimum pH, and the mobility of the elements, proteins and cells of the immune system. myocardial infarction and stroke each may directly result from an arterial system that has been slowly and progressively compromised by years of deterioration.

VEINS

Veins function to return poorly oxygenated blood to the heart, and are essentially tubes that collapse when their lumen are not filled with blood. The thick, outer-most layer of a vein is made of collagen, wrapped in bands of smooth muscle while the interior is lined with epithelial cells called intima. Most veins have one-way flaps called venous valves that prevent blood from flowing back and pooling in the lower extremities due to the effects of gravity. The precise location of veins is much more variable from person to person than that of arteries.

ARTERIES
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart (as opposed to veins, blood vessels carrying blood toward the heart). All arteries, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries, carry oxygenated blood.

The artery is has three layers: A muscular middle which is very elastic and strong, an outer layer of tissue, and an inner layer of smooth epithelial cells that allow the blood to flow easily.
The muscular wall of the artery actually helps the heart to pump blood. When your heart beats the artery expands with blood. Because the artery keeps pace with the heart you can actually measure how many heart beats per minute you have by counting the contractions of the artery (pulse rate)
Arteries also deliver oxygen rich blood to the capillaries where the actual exchange of of carbon dioxide and oxygen happen.
Looking at the image you can see that they have different wall thicknesses. The capillary wall is only 1 cell thick - this is to allow substances to diffuse across it(ie to give oxygen to cells and retrieve the CO2 from cells. One of the reason the blood is at higher pressure in the arteries is that there is a thick muscle layer and this creates a small volume for the blood to pass through. The thick muscle layer is there to withstand the high pressure. In the veins, the semilunar valves stop the blood from flowing backwards, as it is traveling at a very low pressure and is often moving against gravity. The contraction of the muscles also helps the blood in the veins to be pushed up.
Looking at this image you can see that they have different wall thicknesses. The capillary wall is only 1 cell thick - this is to allow substances to diffuse across it(ie to give oxygen to cells and retrieve the CO2 from cells. One of the reason the blood is at higher pressure in the arteries is that there is a thick muscle layer and this creates a small volume for the blood to pass through. The thick muscle layer is there to withstand the high pressure. In the veins, the semilunar valves stop the blood from flowing backwards, as it is traveling at a very low pressure and is often moving against gravity. The contraction of the muscles also helps the blood in the veins to be pushed up.

The outermost layer is known as the tunica externa and is composed of connective tissue. Inside this layer is the tunica media, or media, which is made up of smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue. The innermost layer, which is in direct contact with the flow of blood is the tunica intima. This layer is made up of mainly endothelial cells. The hollow internal cavity in which the blood flows is called the lumen.

Aorta

The aorta is the root systemic artery. It receives blood directly from the left ventricle of the heart via the aortic valve. As the aorta branches, and these arteries branch in turn, they become successively smaller in diameter, down to the arteriole. The arterioles supply capillaries which in turn empty into venules.

The Next Section will explore major arteries and veins,

by body region.
General arterial flow out of the heart

Oxygenated blood is pumped out of the heart by the left ventricle and then enters the ascending aorta. (The left and right coronary arteries branch off directly from the walls of the ascending aorta.)
The ascending aorta then curves towards the left side of the body and forms the aortic arch. ( Three main arteries branch from the aortic arch they are 1. brachiocephalic trunk, 2. left common carotid and 3. left subclavian.

The aortic arch then projects inferiorly to form the descending thoracic aorta. ( The descending thoracic aorta then gives rise to the descending abdominal aorta, which separates into the left and right common illiac arteries.)

General venous return to the heart.

The veins that bring the poorly oxygenated blood back to the heart often share the same names as the arteries that take the oxygenated blood to the same area.
The left and right brachiocephalic veins drain the blood from the head, neck and upper limbs.
The left and right brachiocephalic veins then merge to form the superior vena cava, which drains directly into the right atrium of the heart.
All of the veins inferior to the diaphragm merge to form the inferior vena cava, which also drains directly into the right atrium.

Blood flow to the head and neck.

The left and right common carotid arteries supply most of the blood to the head and neck.
The travel parallel and immediately lateral to the trachea.
At the superior border of the thyroid cartilage each artery divides into an external and internal carotid artery the external supplying the structures external to the skull and the internal supplying the internal structures of the skull.
The external carotid artery supplies blood to several branches

superior thyroid artery. ( supplies thyroid gland, larynx, and some anterior neck muscles.)
ascending pharyngeal artery. (supplies the pharynx.)
lingual artery. (supplies the tongue.)
facial artery. (supplies most of the facial region.)
occipital artery. (supplies the posterior portion of the scalp.)
posterior auricular artery. (supplies the ear and the scalp around the ear.)
maxillary artery. (supplies the teeth, gums, nasal cavity, and meninges.)
superficial temporal artery. (supplies the side of the head and the parotid gland.)

Venous return from the head and neck.

The venous return is accomplished through several smaller veins that merge to form the facial, superficial temporal, and maxillary veins.
These veins then merge and drain into either the internal jugular vein or the external jugular vein, which drain into the subclavian vein and then into the brachiocephalic vein and then into the superior vena cava.

Blood flow through the cranium

The internal carotid artery splits once it enters the carotid canal.
It forms the anterior and middle cerebral arteries, which supply the brain and the ophthalmic arteries which supply the eyes.
The vertebral arteries form from the subclavian arteries before they enter the skull through the foramen magnum. Once inside the skull they merge and form the basilar artery.
The basilar artery subdivides into many branches that are called the posterior cerebral arteries. (supply the cerebrum.)
The other major structure in the cranium is the cerebral arterial circle. This circle equalizes the blood pressure in the brain and can provide alternate channels should a vessel become blocked.

Venous return from the cranium

Blood is drained from the cranium through several large veins called dural venous sinuses.(there are no valves in the dural venous sinus system so blood can potentially flow in more than one direction.)
There are several components to the dural venous sinus system and they are:

Superior sagital sinus. (drains into one of the transverse sinuses usually the right one.)
Inferior sagital sinus. (occupies the interior free edge of the falx cerebri.)
Straight sinus. (formed by the merging of the inferior sagital sinus and the great cerebral vein.)
Left and Right transverse sinuses. (these run horizontally along the internal margin of the occipital bone.)
Left and Right sigmoid sinuses. (these are a continuation of the transverse sinuses and they drain into the internal jugular veins.)

The internal jugular veins and subclavian veins merge to form the brachiocephalic veins and drain into the superior vena cava.

Blood flow through the abdominal cavity

Left and Right internal thoracic arteries emerge from the Left and Right subclavian arteries.
Each internal thoracic artery has the following branches.

Anterior intercostal arteries which supply the anterior intercostal spaces.
Musculophrenic artery which supplies the diaphragm.
Superior epigastric artery which supplies the superior abdominal wall.
Inferior epigastric artery which supplies the inferior abdominal wall.

Left andRight costocervical trunks and thyrocervical trunks emerge from the subclavian arteries as well.
These arteries together form a horizontal vessel arc that spans a segment of the thoracic wall.

There are also five pairs of lumbar arteries and a median sacral artery that supply the lower portion of the thorax.

Venous drainage from the abdominal cavity

Anterior intercostal veins, a superior epigastric vein, and a musculophrenic vein merge to form the internal thoracic vein.
Each of the internal thoracic veins drains into its respective brachiocephalic vein.
The inferior epigastric vein merges with the external illiac vein and then drains into the inferior vena cava.

Blood flow through the thoracic organs
Lungs

Bronchial arteries: supplies the lungs

Bronchial veins: drains blood from the lungs

Esophagus

Esophageal arteries: supplies the esophagus above the abdominal cavity	Esophageal veins: drain the esophageal wall.
Esophageal branches: supplies the esophagus in the abdominal cavity.

Diaphragm

Superior phrenic arteries: supply the diaphragm	Superior phrenic veins: drain the diaphragm into the inferior vena cava
Musculophrenic arteries: supply the diaphragm	Inferior phrenic veins: drain the diaphragm into the inferior vena cava.
Inferior phrenic arteries: supply the diaphragm	Musculophrenic veins: drain the diaphragm into the internal thoracic veins.

Blood flow through the GI tract

Celiac trunk: supplies the stomach, the liver, the spleen, and parts of the duodenum and pancreas.	Heptic portal vein: receives poorly oxygenated blood from the gastrointestinal organs.
Left and Right gastric artery: supplies the lesser curvature of the stomach.	Inferior mesenteric vein: drains the distal part of the large intestine, receives blood from the superior rectal vein, sigmoid, veins, and the left colic vein.
Splenic artery: supplies the spleen and part of the stomach.	Splenic vein: drains the spleen, receives blood from pancreatic veins, short gastric veins, and the right gastroepiploic vein.
Common hepatic artery: supplies the liver.	Superior mesenteric vein:drains the small intestine and part of the large intestine. It receives blood from the intestinal veins, pancreaticoduodenal veins, ileocolic vein, and right and middle colic veins.
Hepatic artery proper: supplies the liver via left and right hepatic arteries.	Gastroduodenal artery: supplies the lesser curvature of the stomach, the duodenum, and the pancreas.
Superior mesenteric artery: supplies most of the small intestine, part of the pancreas and part of the large intestine.	Intestinal arteries: supply the jejunum and ileum
Ileocolic artery: supplies the ileum, cecum, and the appendix.	Right colic artery: supplies the ascending colon.
Middle colic artery: supplies most of the transverse colon.	Inferior mesenteric artery: immediately branches into smaller arteries.
Left colic artery: supplies distal part of the transverse colon and part of the descending colon.	Sigmoid arteries: supply the inferior descending colon and the sigmoid colon.

Blood flow through pelvis

Middle artery: supplies each adrenal gland.	Middle suprarenal vein: drains each adrenal gland.
Renal artery: supplies each kidney.	Renal vein: drains each kidney.
Gonadal artery: supplies each gonad.(testes in males and ovaries in females.)	Gonadal vein: drains each gonad.
Internal illiac artery: supplies the pelvis and perineum.	Internal illiac vein: drains the pelvis and perineum.
Superior gluteal arteries: supply the gluteal region.	Superior gluteal veins: drain the gluteal region.
Inferior gluteal arteries: supply the gluteal region.	Inferior gluteal veins: drain the gluteal region.
Obturator artery: supplies the medial muscles of the thigh.	Obturator vein: drains the medial muscles of the thigh.
Interpudenal artery: supplies the anal canal and the perineum.	Interpudenal vein: drains the anal canal and the perineum.
Middle rectal artery: supplies the lower portion of the rectum.	Middle rectal vein: drains the lower portion of the rectum.
Uterine and Vaginal arteries: supply the uterus and vagina in females.	Uterine and Vaginal veins: drain the uterus and vagina in females.

Blood flow through the upper limb

Subclavian artery: supplies each of the upper limbs.	Basilic vein: runs adjacent to the medial surface of the upper limb drains the dorsal venous network. Superficial vein.
Axillary artery: extends into many branches as it passes the shoulder region.	Cephalic vein: runs alongside the lateral aspect of the upper limb also drains the dorsal venous network. Superficial vein.
Brachial artery: branches into the deep brachial artery and supplies blood to most of the brachial muscles.	Median cubital vein: connects the basilic and cephalic veins and is a common site for venipuncture.
Radial artery: runs along the radius and supplies blood to the forearm and wrist.	Radial veins: run along side the radial artery and drain blood from the palmar arches.
Ulnar artery: runs along the ulna and supplies the forearm and wrist.	Ulnar veins: run alongside the unlar artery and drain the palmar arches.
Superficial palmar arch: formed from the ulnar artery and supplies blood to the palm of the hand.	Brachial veins: travel with the brachial artery and drain the radial and ulnar veins.
Deep palmar arch: formed from the radial artery and supplies the hand.	Axillary vein: brachial and basilic veins merge to form this vein.
Digital arteries: emerge from the arches to supply the fingers.	Subclavian vein: axillary vein is remaned this once it passes the lateral border of the first rib.

Blood flow through the lower limb

Femoral artery: branches to form the deep femoral artery and supplies the hip joint and many of the thigh muscles.	Great and Small sephenous veins: superficial veins that drain the dorsal venous arch. The great sephenous vein drains into the femoral vein and the small sephenous vein drains into the popliteal vein.
Popliteal artery: supplies the knee joint and the muscles in this region.	Medial and Lateral plantar veins: drain the digital and deep veins of the foot.
Anterior tibial artery: supplies the anterior compartment of the leg.	Posterior tibial veins: drain the medial and lateral plantar veins.
Posterior tibial artery: supplies the posterior compartment of the leg.	Fibular veins: drain the plantar surface of the foot.
Fibular artery: supplies the lateral compartment of the leg.	Anterior tibial veins: drain the deep veins of the ankle and dorsum of the foot.
Medial and Lateral plantar arteries: supply the foot.	Popliteal vein: drains the knee joint and the muscles there.
Digital arteries: supply the toes.	Femoral vein: drains the deep veins of the lower leg once they pass the popliteal region.

Development

There are differences in the fetus circulatory system and that of an average adults. Fetal lungs do not rely on the exchange of gases and oxygenated blood because it is supplied from the umbilical cord attached to the placenta in the mother's womb.

The venous duct is connects the umbilical veins that lead from the placenta to the vena cava of the fetus. Oxygenated blood from the placenta travels into the umbilical veins through the venous duct into the vena cava and mixes with the poorly oxygenated blood of the fetus.
The opening between the Right and left Atria is called the oval opening. It allows blood from both sides of the heart to mix and allows blood to enter pulmonary circulation directly.
The arterial duct is the connection between pulmonary artery and aorta that allow the blood to bypass the the non-functioning lungs of the fetus.
The umbilical arteries and veins are vessels that carry the waste and oxygen from the placenta. The veins are the main oxygen carries to the fetus from the placenta and the arteries are the main waste movers.

Fun Fact

Did you know that if you took the blood vessels out of a child and laid it out in a straight line it would be over 60,000 miles long!
In late-nineteenth-century France there was an individual known as "I'homme prote," or the "protean man." He had exceptional control over all his muscles and could protrude or distort any part of himself at will. He could harden the muscles of his stomach so that if hit with a hammer they would not recoil. He could distend his abdomen to create the appearance of enormous obesity or draw it in until he looked like a living skeleton. According to Quatretages, a celebrated French physician of the time, I'homme prote could shut off all the blood from the right side of his body and control the beating of his heart, feats he credited to his great Muscular Control.
Blood is always red - bright red when it is oxygenated and a darker red when it's lacking oxygen. Deoxygenated blood just **looks** blue because you're seeing it through your skin.

In the News & Case study

This is contrast x-ray taken of the kidneys and the mighty aorta

surgeons use abdominal vein to treat brain artery blockage
Prosthetic vein valve shows promise for chronic venous insufficiency
Here is a Utah story of a little boy whose femoral artery and vein were cut by shrapnel from a homemade firework

Glossary

Connections to other body systems

The cardiovascular system transports gases between the lungs and body cells, while the respiratory system exchanges gases between the atmosphere and blood.

This diagram shows the connection between the cardiovascular system with the lungs.

Without arteries and veins every other system in the body would be affected,they can't work without oxygen

Review Questions

1. What disease is most commonly seen in African Americans which affects red blood cells?
a. Vasodilation
b. Arrhythmia
*c.Sickle Cell
d. Varicose Veins

2. What two arteries arise from the ascending aorta?
*a.left & right coronary arteries
b. subclavion & brachiocephalic arteries
c. left & right common carotid arteries
d. left & right axillary arteries

3. Which radiological investigation would you use to asses for deep vein thrombosis?
a. Duplex doppler ultrasound
b. Direct venography
c. MRI venography
*d. All of the above

4. What is the only artery that carries poorly oxygenated blood?
a. Gonadal artery
*b. Pulmonary artery
c. Right common carotid
d. Facial artery

Welcome to The Anatomy Wiki

flattail — Thu, 29 Oct 2009 03:52:26 CDT

Come learn anatomy! This site began as a class project in summer 2008, and has since become quite popular (> 10,000 visitors per month from around the world). You can browse, or you can participate, but if you want to participate you will have to join the site. As a member you can edit any page. There is a new "Getting Started" page and a "How To" page to speed your learning curve for editing a wiki.

If you are in Kevin's current Snow College class you can find slides and info on the Snow College anatomy page.

If you find a useful resource, you can place a link to it on the Online Resources page (by the way, that will point you to many great resources--for a review of those resources check out thinkanatomy.com). You can find flash cards made by others or create your own at Flash Card Exchange. If you decide to create some flash cards, please post links to them on the appropriate pages. At the bottom of any page you can start a discussion thread, or go to the Discussions link to see what people are talking about.

If you have questions feel free to contact Kevin or one of the moderators

For a wealth of medical information, images, and videos, visit Dr. Rufus' Medical Website.
Also check out the Physiwiki and Microbiowiki

Curious about how various surgical procedures are done? ...visit http://www.or-live.com for many videos of a variety of surgical procedures.

Site Navigation.
Unit One	Unit Two	Unit Three
Introduction, human evolution, anatomical terminology	Skeletal system introduction	Introduction to muscles
History of anatomy, body regions & landmarks	Axial skeleton	Axial muscles
Integumentary System	Appendicular skeleton	Appendicular muscles
	Articulations	Nervous system introduction

Unit Four	Unit Five	Unit Six
The Brain	Cardiac Unit (Heart) This has several subpages	Respiratory system
Cranial and spinal nerves	Cardiac Unit (Heart) This has several subpages	Urinary system
Digestive system 1	Arteries and veins	Male reproductive system
Digestive system 2	Lymphatic system	Female reproductive system

Some great places to start:
Add to your own profile page (link on upper right once you are signed in) or play around in the sandbox	Work with your group to create a group page
Ask or answer a question at the Discussion Forum	Explore the lab section for objectives and learning aides
Explore or add to the Online Resources	Explore or add to the anatomy News Files
Explore or add to the Case Studies files	Post a question or a comment at the discussion forum (or on any page)
The System by System page has subpages of notes	For ideas on page content, see the physiwiki site or the microbiowiki site.
Fiddle around with the gadgets! Can you add an image? Link to a web page? Embed a video? You will want to become very comfortable playing around on this site and changing things so that you and your group members will not be inhibited when it comes to building content System by System. This will be the core of the site.

Other news:
Vitamin D lowers risk of upper respiratory infections.

Thoughts on Grading

flattail — Tue, 20 Oct 2009 18:44:03 CDT

Problems

I have always had issues with testing. As a student my issues were not so serious--I just didn't care that much about them. I enjoyed learning, but I thought tests were kind of a waste of time. Since I had to take them I tried to make it like a game, so I could at least have some fun with them. I never had test anxiety until I started making tests for others. I believed that no test was a perfect measure of what a person knows, and most of the time they are not even a very good approximate measure. Too often tests do not align well with course objectives, and a student has to figure out a particular teacher's testing style as much as anything.

If I give a test and the average is a D, then what does that mean? Did the students not study hard enough? Did I not make the objectives clear? Did I not teach well? Did I make a test that only certain types of people could understand? I cannot tease out the variables--all I know is that I feel in part responsible. If I give a test and the average is a B, then what? Did I make it too easy? Or do I have brilliant students, or am I a great teacher? Whatever the average grade is, I really do not get much useful feedback from the tests. And from the student's perspective, what does it mean if they get a B, or a C, or a D? All they can really know is that they did not know the material in just the way it was tested at the time it was tested. They have no motivation to go back and learn the material, since the test is done and they cannot make up those points. After 2 or 3 low test scores a student has lost any motivation and simply faces each test with dread.

A related problem that has bothered me is that if a student comes into the class with little background knowledge they will almost certainly do poorly on the first test. Probably the second test too. Now, if that is a typical student they will just resign themselves to not getting the grade they wanted, and may drop the class or plan on retaking it. If it is a highly motivated student they will continue to apply themselves, but will still not get the grade they hoped for, no matter how hard they worked (since those first tests will lower their average).

Third problem: if someone does poorly on a test and comes to see me, asking "what can I do to improve?" I have little I can tell them. The test is already done, so we cannot fix that score by learning that past material better. Plus, the test covers so much material that it will be challenging for me to figure out in which areas the student has knowledge gaps.

Solution (I hope)

It took me a lot of reading and a sleepless night to come up with this, so hopefully it works! Here's the plan:

1) Divide the material into smaller chunks and have many small tests. Instead of testing on skeletal system and articulations (ALL the bones and their landmarks, plus joint classification, plus structure of specific joints), I could break it down into: skull, vertebrae & ribs, upper extremity, lower extremity, joint classification, and specific joints. With six smaller tests, if a person comes to see me I will have a much better idea of which area they were confused in.

2) There is no reason to relearn past material unless past test scores are not set in stone. So the plan will be to make all these small tests, put them on Blackboard, and have them available all semester. A student can retake any test as often as they want, and the highest score will stick. Here are some details on how it will work:

Each test will be only 5 questions, but these questions will be drawn randomly from a larger pool of questions on that topic, so each time you take the test it will be a bit different.
Since you will not be punished for what you don't know, I will be at liberty to maintain a very high standard. Tests will be challenging, but since they cover a limited amount of material they will also be doable.
The questions may include labeling, matching, multiple-choice, flash-card questions, etc. If you are required to type in the name of something, you must spell it correctly.
You will be asked to take each test at least twice. If you can get two scores of 5, then you have passed off that topic. If you get less than 5, then you can study more and come back another time. The goal is to pass off every unit.
To encourage long-term memory you will not be able to take the same test twice on the same day (but you can take other tests on that day)
I am planning on setting the tests up in Blackboard in such a way that you must be in the testing center, but there will not be a password for each test (so you don't have to keep going to the proctor asking for the next password to be input).
We are doing this mid-semester, and I will first focus on getting tests up for recent material. I will then work on making tests both forwards and backwards until we have tests that cover all the material for the semester.
We will have a comprehensive final exam, but you will be very ready for it if you have passed off the various units.
We will continue to have daily quizzes at the first of class & lab (and sometimes at the end) to encourage you to keep up.
Tests will never be punishments. If you have passed off a unit with two scores of 5 and then get a score of 1 when you review that topic 3 weeks later it will not change your score.

Technical Challenges

I have to get a cross-listed Blackboard section so the students are all in one place (otherwise I have to upload each test 6 times, which would be a nightmare).
I have to make the tests and get the settings right (for instance, from my test bank on a subject it should randomly choose two labeling questions, two multiple choice, and one fill-in-the blank).
I have to get the tests onto Blackboard.
You have to be able to access Blackboard (should be simple, but there are always a few problems).

Malinda and Gavin have volunteered to help out with some of these challenges. I will accept questions from all of you, which I may get through a little survey form.

Your Job

Your part of the equation is to learn anatomy really well, and to help your peers do the same. If you are on top of things and have passed off most units, then I hope you will make yourself available to help others who are struggling. You can also help in writing questions, helping clarify objectives, etc.

Is That All?

Probably not. We will run into challenges as we implement this, so there may be more changes (hopefully not big changes). I will still be asking for other things, such as short papers on various topics. We will still have a comprehensive final exam. And I'm going to also be madly writing my dissertation--so anything you can do on your end to make the class run better will be greatly appreciated!

Everything below this point are thoughts I wrote in June 2009. Everything above is what I wrote in Oct. 2009. ~Kevin

Everything below this point are thoughts I wrote in June 2009. Everything above is what I wrote in Oct. 2009. ~Kevin

As much as I enjoy teaching, I dislike grading!I have been struggling with some thoughts about grading, so I'll record my struggles here.

Teaching is the playful search and discovery with others for thepotential in each of them—and in me. (Louis Schmier)

What, then, is grading?
Grading is an assessment of a student's performance (not effort) on a series of exams and assignments, and an approximate indication of their future academic success. High grade or low grade, it is something a student earns, not something a teacher gives.

I teach accounting, and in an effort to impress that the students earn the grade, I don't give it to them, the total possible points for the course = the cost of the course, $2000. I point out that each week of the 10-week course costs them (or someone else) $200. They have an opportunity to "earn back" their tuition, in the form of the grade that will show up on their transcripts.

Some of the trouble, for me, is that any assessment has its problems. Occasionally a person will truly know the anatomy but perform poorly on a test due to the way the test is written (however, I think people claim this to be the case more often than it really is). There is also a lot of inequity when it comes to testing/grading--some instructors are notoriously difficult, while others are notoriously easy. That inconsistency causes problems. Another aspect of grading that is troubling is that I prefer to be the student's advocate, but when it comes to grading I have to instead act as the judge. Whereas it seemed we were working together and having fun learning together, when it comes time to testing and grading I suddenly seem to be a roadblock to the students (this is not really the case, but that is often the perception).

Here is something from a seasoned teacher:

I tell students on the first day it is not my job to get them into their chosen program. My job is to be sure they have the foundation of knowledge they will need to be successful at the next step. I add that if I give them a false impression of what they know by grade inflation, I will not be doing them a favor since they will be facing harder and harder challenges along the way. I assure them that I am there to mentor them and provide whatever help I can, but in the end, their grade is their responsibility, not mine.

I emphasize on a regular basis that lack of success in any career endeavor does not indicate that anyone is a "failure". It is simply a sign that they are perhaps on the wrong career path. I offer to work with anyone who asks to help them discover their true calling. I actually take more pride in those students I have helped reached the conclusion that their "purpose" lies outside the medical field, most of whom are quite relieved to be "released" from the burden of continuing down their previous path. Some of them actually became teachers! :)

What is an appropriate standard for a college-level anatomy course? What is a fair way to assess understanding? What pitfalls are there associated with testing and grading? I would love for you to share your thoughts either directly on this page or in a discussion thread at the bottom of the page. ~Kevin

Skeletal & Articulation Slides

flattail — Tue, 20 Oct 2009 16:40:12 CDT

Slides from First Test

flattail — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 00:33:23 CDT

I am putting slides into groups so we don't have too many on one page:

News Files

flattail — Wed, 26 Aug 2009 19:37:11 CDT

New Resources

Association between Bruxism and TMD

In addition to putting news articles on the chapter page, you can list any anatomy-related articles here. Please put a link to the article (rather than copy/pasting the actual text). A short description is appreciated.

Who would have guessed? There is an Icelandic Phallological Museum, as described in this article. One thing to note, which isn't made clear in the article, is that humans (and other primates) do not have a baculum, or "os penis" like many mammals do.
The way to a man's heart? Through his left ear! Intriguing article that summarizes a variety of research about differences in brain hemispheres.
Muscles of the Pelvic Floor

1 in 3 Women Has Pelvic Floor Disorder
Science Daily, Mar. 5, 2008

This recent study conducted by Kaiser Permanente of Southern California is the most extensive research on the subject to date. It talks about the disorders studied, the study purpose and treatment options available.

Polish man emerges from nineteen year coma
China admits that 2/3rds of its organs for transplant come from executed prisoners
Do cholesterol levels cause heart disease? Give your opinion AFTER watching this short video:

Online Resources

flattail — Wed, 19 Aug 2009 18:41:37 CDT

There is more to anatomy than the Anatowiki. Put your other favorite online resources here.

Think Anatomy. A compilation of great anatomy resources, more complete than this page
McGraw Hill's anatomy resources to accompany the book (organized by chapter)
A British site for med students to review--concise, useful, and funny--check out MedRevise
The resources associated with the book Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology are freely available here. Choose a chapter along the top, then you can select quizzes, animations, notes, etc. along the side. I particularly liked the case studies.
Human Anatomy Online
wePapers anatomy - Anatomy ebooks, lecture notes , articles and more.
Gunter Von Hagens' Body Worlds exhibit
Not sure who has access to the "Films on Demand," but at least Snow College students can see a variety of films about anatomy & physiology.
Get Body Smart! Online tutorials by body system
Histology slides (we don't do a lot with histology, but this is a nice site)
McGraw Hill textbook website: quizzes, animations, chapter summaries, flash cards
Anatomy and Physiology Revealed online software (you can also get this as a CD at the Bookstore)
Here is a site with a LOT of anatomy flashcards (or you can make your own and post them). Note that many of these flashcard sets include many structures we will not learn (a lot more depth on nerves and muscles, for example).
USU Blackboard site
Anatomy resources from a class at University of Arkansas. Has many unlabeled diagrams to practice with.
situs inversus information available here.
Dr. Rufus' Medical Website is a wiki full of valuable medical information, videos, 3-D animations, and more
Some anatomy and physiology videos, system by system
You can watch a full course of anatomy lectures at UC Berkeley! This lady is old school and relies only the chalk board--and she is amazing!
Yale School of Medicine provides this index of case studies, radiographs, anatomical drawings, etc. Patrick Lynch is the medical illustrator at Yale--and he is the one who created the images used in the banner at the top of our page!
Online videos of cadaver dissections can be watched here (from U. Michigan) or here (from U. Wisconsin).
Listen to heart and lung sounds. If you are really trying to learn these sounds well, try the auscultation assistant or the rale repository (lung sounds only).
Tips for making Google searches even more effective
Below is information about a web site (Visible Human) that can be used to aid in learning anatomy. It is free to sign up for this great tool!

Integumentary System

JessicaErwin — Sun, 09 Aug 2009 14:42:36 CDT

Please Note: There are sub pages for the the Integumentary System which are: Clinical Views & Case Study, Fun Facts & In the News, & Integument System Review.

Learning Objectives

Gain knowledge of the skin and its derivatives
Become familiar with the function and structures of the Integument System
Identify skin abnormalities, conditions and disorders

Flashcards are available here

Notes, Pictures and Videos

An Introduction to the Skin describes the anatomy of the integumentary system through a series of photomicrographs.

The integumentary system is made of the largest organ called "skin". It is made up of multiple layers of epithelial cells that protect underlying muscles and organs. Could you image everyone walking around without skin?
The skin has TWO main layers the Epidermis, Dermis. Not included as part of the skin but often discussed with the two main layers is the Subcutaneous or fat layer deep to the Dermis.

Animated illustration of skin anatomy

Layers of the Skin

Epidermis (outer portion of the skin consisting of 4-5 layers)

Dermis (deeper and thicker than the epidermis)

Papillary Layer (stratum papillarosum): This is the upper layer which is in contact with the epidermis. This layer contains dermal papillae and epidermal ridges. The dermal papillae have capillaries that supply cells of the epidermis. The papillae also house sensory receptors that continuously monitor touch on the surface of the epidermis.
Reticular Layer (stratum reticularosum): This layer is between the papillary and subcutaneous layers. It is where most of the structures of the dermis are located, such as hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands, nerves, and blood vessels. It's mesh work of collagen and elastic fibers gives the skin it's strength and elasticity and contribute to physical characteristics such as stretch marks and wrinkles. These fibers also make up the skin's lines of cleavage (or tension lines) which are surgically significant.

Epidermal Derivatives

Nails: They are scale-like modifications of the epidermis that protect the tips of the fingers and toes.

They are hard derivatives from the stratum corneum layer that are densely packed with parallel fibers of hard keratin.

Hair: Although, a single hair extends deep into the dermis and at times into the subcutaneous layer, it is produced by the epidermal layer.
It's swelling base with epithelial cells is called the "bulb".
It originates at the base of the epithelial cell lined "follicle" which surrounds the hair.
The remainder of the hair within the follicle is called the "root" that is pushed upward as cells divide, become keratinized, and die.
The portion of the hair that extends beyond the skin surface is called the "shaft" which is composed of dead keratinized cells.

Glands: see below

Glands

Type	Products Secreted/Description
*Sweat (Sudoriferous)Glands*
Apocrine Glands	Most superficial layer of epidermis; 20-30 layers of dead, flattened, anucleate, keratin filled karatinocytes, called corneocytes
Merocrine Glands	Produce non-viscous, watery secretion. Controlled by nervous system. Provides some antibacterial protection. Functions in thermo regulation and excretion. Flushes surface of epidermis.
*Sebaceous Glands*	Lipid material called sebum; coats epidermis and shaft of hair. Also Lubrication and antibacterial activity
*Other Glands*
Mammary Glands	Milk to nourish offspring
Ceruminous Glands	Cerumen (ear wax)

Animated illustration of hair formation

Functions of Skin	Functions of Hair
Protection Prevention of water loss Temperature regulation Metabolic regulation Sensory receptors Excretion by means of secretion Vitamin D synthesis. Getting plenty of vitamin D — more than diet can offer — appears to provide potent protection against colds, flu and even pneumonia, a new study reports. Produce melatonin Produce keratinocytes	Protection Heat retention Facial expression Sensory receptors Visual identification Chemical signal dispersion (pheromones) Heighten attractiveness

Innervation and blood supply
The dermis has an extensive distribution of "nerve fibers" for awareness of surroundings.
These nerve fibers monitor sensory receptors and control both blood flow and gland secretion rates.
The dermis also contains "blood vessels" that supply needed nutrients to the skin and regulate body temperature.

Skin Repair and Regeneration

The elements of the integumentary system demonstrate an astounding capability to respond to stresses and damage as explained below.

*Affect*	Example	*Action*	*Result*	Example
Stresses	Walking about without shoes	Stratum basale stem cells stimulate mitotic activity; thickening of the epidermis occurs	Improved ability to withstand stress; more protection for the underlying tissues	Tough and/or callused soles of feet
Minor damage	Superficial wound	Regeneration: epithelial cells at edge of wound divide replacing damaged/dead cells with the same cell type	Organ structure and function is restored	No scar
Major damage	Deep wound	Fibrosis: fibroblasts from surrounding margins of wound fill in the gap with tissue composed of collagen fibers	Partial organ structure is restored but organ function is not restored	Scar

Phases of Wound Healing
The entire wound healing process is a complex series of events that begins at the moment of injury and can continue for months to years. This overview will help in identifying the various stages of wound healing.
(a) Inflammatory Phase
1. Immediate to 2-5 days
2.Hemostasis

Vasoconstriction
Platelet aggregation
Thromboplastin makes clot

3. Inflammation

Vasodilation
Phagocytosis

(b) Proliferative Phase
1. 2 days to 3 weeks
2. Granulation

Fibroblasts lay bed of collagen
Fills defect and produces new capillaries

3. Contraction

Wound edges pull together to reduce defect

4. Epithelialization

Crosses moist surface
Cell travel about 3 cm from point of origin in all directions

(c) Remodeling Phase
1. 3 weeks to 2 years
2. New collagen forms which increases tensile strength to wounds
3. Scar tissue is only 80 percent as strong as original tissue

Aging of the Skin

Eventually, all components of the integumentary system are affected by age in the ways described in the table below.

Change	Affect
Decreased number/activity of stem cells	Healing is slower/skin gets thinner
Decreased number/elasticity of dermal fibers	Wrinkles/skin sagging
Decreased number and efficiency of epidermal dendritic cells	Diminished immune response
Decreased sebaceous/sweat gland activity	Drier skin/less sweat; increased risk of body overheating
Decreased or complete absence of melanocytes	Grey or white hair
Increased sun sensitivity~melanocyte increase in small areas	Liver/age (sun) spots
Decreased efficiency/cease of hair production in follicle	Thinner/no hair
Low vitamin D production/low calcium/phosphorus absorption	Impaired bone formation and density/poor muscle function

Abnormal Skin Colorations

Albinism: Pale skin, white hair, iris of the eyes are pink.
Bronzing: Skin appears golden brown, copper or bronze in color.
Cyanosis: Skin appears blue as a result of oxygen deficiency in circulating blood.
Erythema: Skin appears abnormally red.
Hematoma: A bruise that is observable through the skin.
Jaundice: Skin and sclera (whites of the eyes) appear yellow.
Pallor: Skin appears an ash tone, pale due to white collagen fibers housed within the dermis.

For more info try this link Body Guide

Integumentary System Disorders

Acne: a skin disorder that causes hair follicles on the skin become infercted and clogged and is characterized by pimples on the chest, back, and face.
Carcinoma: a cancerous tumor that occurs in the mucous membrane, skin, or similar tissue of the body.
Malignant melanoma: Cancer of the melanocytes; the most serious type of skin cancer.
Warts: Small growths caused by a viral infection of the skin or a mucous membrane.
Athlete's foot: aka: Tinea Pedis is a common fungal infection that causes the skin between the toes to crack and peel away, and become itchy and sore. Athlete's Foot fungi live only on dead body tissue like hair, nails, and the epidermis. Dermatitis: An inflammation of the skin. There are multiple types of dermatitis, which is known for a pink or red itchy rash. The two most common types are contact dermatitis (an allergic reaction to an irritant on the skin) and seborrheic dermatitis. Dermatitis herpetiformis: an autoimmune disease causing clusters of intensely itchy small blisters and hivelike swellings.

glutens in wheat, rye, and barley products cause the immune system to attack the skin
small, itchy blisters and hivelike eruptions on various areas of the body

Cellulitis: a spreading bacterial infection of the skin and the tissues immediately beneath the skin.

Redness, pain, and tenderness are felt over an area of skin, and some people have a fever, chills, and other more serious symptoms.

Vitiligo: a disorder in which a localized loss of melanocytes causes patches of skin to turn white.

Patches of whitened skin are present on various parts of the body.
Corticosteroid creams or phototherapy plus light-sensitizing drugs may darken the skin, or, if needed, skin grafts may be used.

Ringworm (tinea): a fungal skin infection caused by several different fungi and generally classified by its location on the body.

The fungi that cause ringworm infections tend to spread in moist areas of the skin.
Symptoms include rashes, scaling, and itching.
Doctors usually examine the affected area and view a skin sample under a microscope or in a culture.
Antifungal drugs applied directly to the affected areas or taken by mouth usually cure the infection.

A close up view of Acne . Carcinoma

Glossary

component	meaning	example
CUT-	skin	subcutaneous layer = layer below the skin
DERMA-	skin	dermatology = study of the skin and its diseases
EPI-	upon	epidermis = layer above the dermis
LIPO-	fat	lipoatrophy = atrophy of fat below the skin
MELAN-	black	melanin = the black pigment in the skin
ONYCH-	nail	onychectomy = excision of a nail
PACHY-	thick	pachyderma = abnormal thickening of skin
SCLERO-	hand / tough	scleroderma = chronic hardening of the skin
SUDOR-	sweat	sudorific = an agent that promotes sweat
-ITIS	inflammation	dermatitis = inflammation of the skin
-OMA	tumour	melanoma = black coloured skin tumour
-OSIS	condition / disease	dermatophytosis = a fungal infection of the skin

Connections to other body systems

The Integumentary System is not only found in humans and animals it is also a common name used in Botany to describe the ovule which is made up of maternal tissue that will eventually develop into the seed coat.

The Integument covers muscles and organs underneath it. It can also send messages to the brain signaling hot/cold & hard/smooth.

The integument also works with the Hypothalamus when the body needs to release heat by sweating.

Review Questions

1. What are the five layers of the epidermis? Stratum(Come, Let's, Get, Sun, Burned)
2. What is the name and function of the two layers of the dermis?
3. During the healing process of the skin, what type of tissue is an open wound filled with?
4. What type of gland produces a non-viscus, watery solution which helps regulate body temperature?
5. In what layer does the body store fatty tissue?
6. In what areas of the body would you find an extra layer of skin, known as the strantum lucidum?
7. Name one function the Integumentary system does to release heat.
8. What Abnormal skin coloration deals with pale skin, whit hair, and pink color of the iris in the eye?
9. Name three functions of the skin.
10. What are the two Sweat glands?

effects of anemia

lumberjilltx — Sun, 19 Jul 2009 23:35:00 CDT

There is no abstract available for this page revision.

Link organizing page

flattail — Sat, 27 Jun 2009 14:55:02 CDT

This is a temporary page to organize the information found on the Educational links page and on the Online Resources page. We will have headings and subheadings, and can organize links into tables. Ideally we will have the link plus a short description. We can add as many tables as we need, then trim things up or make larger categories as needed.

Textbook Resources	Government Resources	Useful Tech Tools	Course websites
McGraw Hill's anatomy resources to accompany the book Human Anatomy (organized by chapter)	www.library.nhs.uk National Library for Health: Comprises NHS funded services across the UK and a digital hub, with the aim of becoming ‘the most trusted health related knowledge service in the world’.	Slide Share (allows you to make Powerpoint presentations public, and embed them onto websites)	Anatomy resources from a class at University of Arkansas. Has many unlabeled diagrams to practice with.
Anatomy and Physiology Revealed online software (you can also get this as a CD at the Bookstore)	www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk NHS Direct: This UK National Health Service (NHS) initiative provides information about health, illness and health services. Enabling patients to make decisions.	Online Flash Cards (make your own flash cards, share them if you want, study from other people's flash cards)	You can watch a full course of anatomy lectures at UC Berkeley! This lady is old school and relies only the chalk board--and she is amazing!
		Tips for making Google searches even more effective

Discipline-specific websites	Other useful sites	Sites to test your knowledge	Pharmaceutical information
	Dr. Rufus' Medical Website is a wiki full of valuable medical information, videos, 3-D animations, and more		www.bnf.org The Birtish National Formulary (BNF) provides UK healthcare professionals with authoritative information on medicines in a clear, concise and accessible manner.
	http://physiwiki.wetpaint.com/		www.bnfc.org The British National Formulary for Children provides information on medicines for childhood disorders
	http://microbiowiki.wetpaint.com/		www.nelm.nhs.uk National Electronic Library for Medicines (NeLM): largest medicine information service for healthcare professionals in the UK National Health service (NHS) promoting safe and effective use of medicines.
	Think Anatomy. A compilation of great anatomy resources, with thorough reviews

Clinical Sites	Professional Societies & Journals	Specific to Nursing School	Specific to Medical School
www.clinicalskillsnetwork.org.uk Clinical Skills Network for Yorkshire and the Humber Region	www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov PubMed Central (PMC): This is a free digital archive of biomedical and life sciences journal literature at the US National Institutes of Health (NIH).		A British site for med students to review--concise, useful, and funny--check out MedRevise
www.mapofmedicine.com An online clinical knowledge resource helping healthcare professionals decide the best possible management plans for patients.			Yale School of Medicine provides this index of case studies, radiographs, anatomical drawings, etc. Patrick Lynch is the medical illustrator at Yale--and he is the one who created the images used in the banner at the top of our page!
www.resus.org.uk Resuscitation Council (UK): Information for healthcare professionals and the general public, in the most effective methods of resuscitation.

Add your headings	Sites about disease conditions	Video (or audio) resource pages
		Some anatomy and physiology videos, system by system
		Online videos of cadaver dissections can be watched here (from U. Michigan) or here (from U. Wisconsin).
		Listen to heart and lung sounds. If you are really trying to learn these sounds well, try the auscultation assistant or the rale repository (lung sounds only).

Educational links

307696 — Tue, 23 Jun 2009 06:27:23 CDT

http://www.waybuilder.net/free-ed/MedArts/AnatPhys01_VOD.asp?iNum=6http: freevideolectures.com/anatomy.

htmlhttp://videos4us.googlepages.com/anatomy

http://rufusrajadurai.wetpaint.com/

http://physiwiki.wetpaint.com/

http://microbiowiki.wetpaint.com/

http://en.diagnosispro.com/

http://www.patient.co.uk/guidelines.asp

http://www.archive.org/index.php

http://freescienceonline.blogspot.com/2008/07/anatomy-and-physiology-video-lectures.html

http://www.oscehome.com

/OSCE_Book_Medical_Student.html http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1976522

http://www.conntutorials.com/chapter1.html

http://www.martindalecenter.com/MedicalClinical_Exams.htm

l http://www.elu.sgul.ac.uk/cso/

http://casesblog.blogspot.com/2006/03/clinical-skills-videos-summary-of-free.html

http://www.youtube.com/sgulcso

http://connect.educause.edu/Library/Abstract/UsingVideotoStrengthenStu/48371?time=1238247056

http://www.instantanatomy.net/anatom

http://www.ijocs.org/csl/Default.aspx

http://www.mrfordsclass.net/course/view.php?id=3

http://www.medicalgeek.com/anatomy/11917-anatomy-lectures-video-prof-dr-marian-diamond.html

http://content.hccfl.edu/facultyinfo/nehringer/bsc1085videolectures.html

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2002_general/Esp/default.htmh

http://www.primalpictures.com

http://www.heradu.org/developments.html

www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/immunology/main.html

http://www.elu.sgul.ac.uk/cso/index.htm

www.biologymad.com www.cdad.com/nih/immune2/index.html

www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/disease/animations.html

www.mayoclinic.com www.micro.msb.le.ac.uk/MBChB/2a.html

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/autoimmune/autoimmune.html www.northarundel.com/aniplayer

www.ntri.tamuk.edu/immunology/blood.html

www.nci.nih.gov/sciencebehind/immune/immune00.html

www.whfreeman.com/kuby/index.html

http://slideworld.org/default.aspx

http://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/101/index.html

http://www.thejce.com/

http://www.nice.org.uk/TA38

http://www.nice.org.uk/TA10

http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/paediatric-guideline/bd.htm

http://www.o2demand.com/CNSvideoIntroduction

http://www.pduk.net http://learning.bmj.com/learning/goto-channel.html

Below is a list of links in alphabetical order, we feel may benefit readers of the International Journal of Clinical Skills. If you would like to update an existing link or add a new one, please e-mail webmaster@ijocs.org with your suggestions.

www.bnf.org
The Birtish National Formulary (BNF) provides UK healthcare professionals with authoritative information on medicines in a clear, concise and accessible manner.

www.bnfc.org
The British National Formulary for Children provides information on medicines for childhood disorders

www.clinicalskillsnetwork.org.uk
Clinical Skills Network for Yorkshire and the Humber Region

www.csn-cetl.ac.uk
A collaboration between the clinical skills community

www.dh.gov.uk
The Department of Health (England, UK) exists to improve the health and wellbeing of people in England.

www.eMedicine.com
With over 10,000 contributors this is the largest and most current clinical knowledge base for healthcare professionals.

www.erc.edu
Latest resuscitation guidelines from the European Resuscitation Council

www.gpnotebook.co.uk
General Practice Notebook: Over 26,000 pages of continually updated medical information for clinicians.

www.library.nhs.uk
National Library for Health: Comprises NHS funded services across the UK and a digital hub, with the aim of becoming ‘the most trusted health related knowledge service in the world’.

www.mapofmedicine.com
An online clinical knowledge resource helping healthcare professionals decide the best possible management plans for patients.

www.medlineplus.gov
MedlinePlus: Online service for patients bringing together information from the US National Library of Medicine and other organisations

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed
PubMed: Over 18 million citations from MEDLINE and other life sciences journals for biomedical articles dating back to the 1950s. A service of the US National Library of Medicine.

www.nelm.nhs.uk
National Electronic Library for Medicines (NeLM): largest medicine information service for healthcare professionals in the UK National Health service (NHS) promoting safe and effective use of medicines.

www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk
NHS Direct: This UK National Health Service (NHS) initiative provides information about health, illness and health services. Enabling patients to make decisions.

www.nice.org.uk
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) is an independent organisation responsible for providing national guidance on promoting good health and preventing and treating ill health in the UK.

www.nlm.nih.gov
The National Library of Medicine (NLM) is on the campus of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Maryland, USA. It is the world’s largest medical library and it provides information services in all areas of bioscience and healthcare.

www.patient.co.uk
Good quality information on health and disease for the general public, with over 750 patient information leaflets.

www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov
PubMed Central (PMC): This is a free digital archive of biomedical and life sciences journal literature at the US National Institutes of Health (NIH).

www.resus.org.uk
Resuscitation Council (UK): Information for healthcare professionals and the general public, in the most effective methods of resuscitation.

www.scsn.scot.nhs.uk
The Scottish Clinical Skills Network (SCSN) was established in 2001 with support from NHS Education for Scotland by Dr Jean Ker, Director of the Clinical Skills Centre in Dundee. A website developed to maintain standards of clinical skills education

Male reproductive system

elisamendoza — Sat, 20 Jun 2009 00:05:46 CDT

Here is a video of an introduction the males reproductive system.

Learning Objectives

These are some of the topics we will discuss below:

-Anatomical structure of the males reproductive system.
-Components of the testes.
-Process and Analysis of spermatogenesis

Notes, Pictures & Videos

In the male reproductive system the main gonads are called the "testes".

LINKS

Cadaver Breakdown Of The Male Reproductive Sysyetm
Inside The Male Cadaver Extrenal Genitalia
Cadver Discetion showing the path of the semen
Cadver Disection Of Testies
Scrotum-the ideal temperature for producing and storing sperm is about 3 degrees Celsius lower than body temperature. The scrotum is a skin covered sac that lies between the thighs and provides a cooler environment needed for normal sperm and development and maturation. It contains a ridge like seam at the midline called the "raphe".

Testes- relatively small and oval organ housed within the scrotum. The testes produce sperm and androgen's( male sex hormones). Each testis is subdivided into about 250 "lobules". The most common androgen is called "testosterone". Androgens cause males to develop male characteristics at puberty. The testes receive blood through the gonadal (testicular) arteries that arise from the abdominal aorta. Venous blood is drained by the gonadal (testicular) veins. Inflammation of the testis is called "orchitis". How does testosterone affect male fertility ? The Role of Testosterone
The main male sex hormone is testosterone and this is made by the testicles, starting at puberty. Testosterone is produced by specialized cells in the testis called the Leydig cells. These are stimulated to release testosterone in response to the LH signal from the pituitary . LH is luteinizing hormone - the same hormone found in women.

Semen- is fluid from the accessory glands that combines with sperm from the testes. When released during intercourse, semen is called the ejaculate and is normally 3 to 5 milliliters in volume and contains approximately 200 to 500 million spermatozoa. Though actual sperm counts can vary the seminal fluid volume will stay the same.

Similarities between the male and female reproductive system.
-The gland of the clitoris is homologous to the tip of the penis.
-The hood of the clitoris is homologous to the foreskin(prepuce) in the penis.
-The labia majora is homologous to the scrotum.

Case Study

Enlarged Prostate (BPH):

The most common prostate problem for men over 50 is prostate enlargement. By age 60, over one-half of men have BPH; by age 85, the number climbs to 90%

Symptoms of enlarged prostate can include:

A weak or slow urinary stream
A feeling of incomplete bladder emptying
Difficulty starting urination
Frequent urination
Urgency to urinate
Getting up frequently at night to urinate
A urinary stream that starts and stops
Straining to urinate

Information on treatments
An enlarged prostate is due to inflammation of the urethra.
-The most common treatment for an inflame urethra is TURP,
Transurethral Resection of the Prostate, a tool that is inserted into the penis to open up prostate.

In the News

A New, Nearly Foolproof Circumcision Device! This device (invented in Utah!) may significantly reduce complications from circumcisions. The company is planning on making an adult-version of the device, as there is high demand among men in Africa for this procedure (it reduces the risk of spreading HIV to female partners).

Glossary

Circumcision-is the surgical removal of the foreskin or prepuce.
Semen-fluid from the accessory glands combines with sperm and testes.
Ejaculation-process by which semen is expelled from the penis.
Prostate Gland-is a compact encapsulated organ that is about the same shape and size as a walnut.
Penis-forms the external genitalia in males. The move able portion of the penis is called the "body" or "shaft". The tip is called the "glans".
Epididymis-is a comma shaped structure composed of an internal duct and an external covering of connective tissue. It's "head" lies on the superior surface of the testis while the " body" and "tail" are posterior to the testis. Internally the epididymis contains a long convoluted duct of the epididymis which is approximately 4 to 5 meters in length.
Ductus deferens-sperm enter from the epididymis. Ductus deferens is also called "vas deferens". It is a thick walled tube that ravels within the spermatic cord, through the inguinal canal, and within the pelvic cavity before it nears the prostate gland at the base of the bladder. It is composed of an inner "mucosa" that is lined with ciliated epithelium, a middle "muscularis" that contains several layers of smooth muscle that contract to help move sperm cells through the ductus deferens, and an outer "adventitia".
Erection-venous spaces become engorged with blood and the erectile bodies become rigid.
Seminiferous tubules-produce millions of sperm cells every day.
Spermatogenesis-production of sperm.
Sustentacular cells-assist with sperm development, provide a protective environment, and create a barrier between sperm cells and the circulatory system.
Nocturnal emissions-are monthly episodes where the males reproductive system encounters an urge to ejaculate its contents.
Interstitial cells-produce males hormones (androgens).
Androgens-cause males to develop male characteristics.
Orchitis-inflammation of one or both testes.
Bulbourethral gland-lubricates the head of the penis.
Seminal vesicle-neutralizes the secretions of the vagina.
Gonorrhea-inflammation of the urethra.
Proctologis-specialist in the males reproductive system.
Transurethral resection of the prostate(TURP)-a device inserted in the males penis to help with an inflame urethra.
Hypertrophy-enlarge urethra.

Connections to other body systems

A Link To Some Great Videos About Male Anatomty
Connection to the circulatory system-the right testicular vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava.
-the left testicular vein drains directly into the left renal vein.

Review Questions

1. What is the ridge like seam at the midline of the scrotum called?
a. Raphe
b. Scrotum
c. Urethra
d. Testis

2. Inflammation of the testis is called what?
a. Orchitis
b. Otitis media
c. Testisitis
d. Rapheitis

3. The "ductus deferens" is also called what?
a. vas deferens
b. spermatic cord
c. inguinal canal
d. epididymis

4. How long is the ejaculatory duct?
a. 1 to 2 centimeters
b. 3 to 4 centimeters
c. 5 to 6 centimeters
d. 7 to 8 centimeters

5. The prostate gland is about the same size and shape as a _______?
a. grape
b. walnut
c. tomato
d. olive

6. What is the process called when semen is expelled?
a. erectile dysfunction
b. ejaculation
c. ejaculatory
d. erection

7. What is the tip of the penis called?
a. glans
b. body
c. shaft
d. end of the penis

8. when erection takes place in the penis where does the most blood go into?
a. scrotum
b. Corpora cavernosa
c. corpora spongiosum
d. epididymis

9. Each testis is subdivided into about 250 'lobules'. Each lobule contains up to 4 extremely convoluted, thin and elonogated________.
a. sustenacular tubules
b. tunica vaginalis
c.seminiferous tubules
d. scrotal septum

10. Which is true about the blood flow of the tested?
a. the left gonadal vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava
b. the right gonadal vein drains directly into the left renal vein
c. the right gonadal vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava
d. none of the above

11. The ejaculatory duct is between ______________.
a. 1-2 centimeters long
b. the scrotum
c. 4-6 centimeters long
d. the gonadal arteries

Case Studies

flattail — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 16:15:23 CDT

Because we were starting to build up a long list of case studies they have been moved to subpages. If you want to create an additional case study, please "Add page" (button on left panel, right above "Top Contributors"). Then come back to this page and add a link to your new subpage.

Cranial Case Study	Celiac Disease	What are "normal" feet really like?
Motorcycle accident	Pelvic Floor Prolapse	Fibroma on Tibia
Pancreatitis and Gallbladder Sludge
Steven's Heart Problems

Case Studies Online
http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case.html	http://anatomy.med.umich.edu/courseinfo/clinical_index.html	http://www.mic.stacken.kth.se/Diseases/
https://chico.nss.udel.edu/Pbl/index.jsp

Cancerous Moles

flattail — Tue, 09 Jun 2009 16:20:01 CDT

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Add photo caption or credit here.		Add photo caption or credit here.
Add photo caption or credit here.		Add photo caption or credit here.
Add photo caption or credit here.		Add photo caption or credit here.

Anatomy from a 4 year old!

flattail — Tue, 09 Jun 2009 16:19:10 CDT

Anatomy from 3 year old

So it seems like it took me forever to learn these muscles and this little boy makes it look so easy! He will be a genius if he keeps this up!

Strange people

flattail — Tue, 09 Jun 2009 16:18:51 CDT

Painful things people will do

This video is actually quite disturbing! I'm not sure how or why people would try these things on themselves, let alone continue to do them! I guess it makes for good entertainment (or a way to get attention!). Just note- these people are sticking things THROUGH one spot on their body and it's showing up on the other. If you are prone to bad dreams, this might cause you to have some disturbing ones to say the least!

Funny Videos

flattail — Thu, 14 May 2009 18:56:16 CDT

This page is getting crowded! If you have a new submission, put it in Funny Videos Part 2.

How do you post a video?? It's easy:

Click "EasyEdit" and put the cursor in one of the cells of the table below.
Click the "Widget button."
Choose the source of your video (such as YouTube). Here is where it gets a little tiny bit tricky. You can either search from within the widget and find your video or, what I do, is I go to YouTube on a different tab or different window, find the video, then copy the URL or the embed code (found next to the video). You will then return to here, click "Add by URL or embed code" and paste into that window. Voila! You should now have a working video.
Click Save on the EasyEdit toolbar and we can all have a laugh without having to spend hours surfing YouTube.

Axial Skeleton

flattail — Mon, 04 May 2009 15:37:53 CDT

Skeletal System Intro

Home

Appendicular Skeleton

Axial Q & A

Axial Clinical Views

Axial News

What is the axial skeleton?

The human skeleton can be divided into two main parts; the first part is the axial skeleton and second part is the appendicular skeleton (but we will be focusing on the axial skeleton). As shown in the illustration, the axial skeleton consists of the bones in the head and trunk of the human body. This area can be further divided into five main parts. These parts consist of; the skull, ossicles of the inner ear, hyoid bone of the throat, chest, and the vertebral column.

Skull Anatomy Tutorials (places to check out in addition to this site)

This site has an interactive clickable skull to help you learn and identify the parts

This site has an interactive skull but goes into more detail about each bone. It also allows you to manipulate (move, enlarge, rotate) the bones of the skull to get a better view.
This site shows the skull at different angles and helps you learn the bones.
Here are flashcards made by fellow students

Learning Objectives

The main objective for this page is to help you understand and learn everything you ever wanted to know (and a bunch of stuff you don't want to know, but that you need to know in order to get a good grade in your anatomy class) about all the bones that make up the axial skeleton.

Here is an outline of the learning objectives for this section:

1. Learn the definition of Axial Skeleton.

2. What is the main function of the axial skeleton

a) What other functions do the bones of the axial skeleton perform.

3. The skull

a) What are the two groups of skull bones

i) Be able to name and describe the 8 cranial bones.

(1) Understand the relationship of each bone and how they fit together.

(a) What is the anatomical name for the roof of the cranium.
(2) Be able to name and locate the places where the bones join.

(a) At what age do the bones of the skull usually fuse.
(b) What happens when the bones fuse too soon.
(c) What is the name for the bones which form in the suture itself
ii) Be able to name and describe the 14 facial bones.

(1) Understand the relationship of each facial bone and how they fit together.

(a) What is a common deformity that happens when embryonic bones fail to fuse properly
(2) Be able to name and locate the articulations of each bone.
iii) What bones come together to form the orbit.
iv) What bones, features and landmarks can you feel on your own face.
b) What are the major cavities of the skull

i) What is the name and function of each cavity.
c) What are the different views of the skull and which features are visible in each.
d) What are the landmark features of each bone in the skull
e) Know the names of the canals, fissures, and foramen in the cranial bones.
f ) Know the names of the canals, fissures, and foramen in the facial bones. g) What are the names of the other bones associated with the skull
h) What are the names, function, and position of the auditory ossicles.

ii) What and where is the hyoid bone and what function does it serve.
i) What are the sex differences in the skull.
j) How does the skull age.
k) What are the differences between a fetal, child, and an adult skull

ii) What are fontanels

(1) Be able to name the different fontanels and at what age they close.

4. The Vertebral Column.

a) What is the function of the vertebral column.
b) What are the names of each bone in the vertebral column.
c) What are the divisions in the vertebral column.

i) What are the names of each cervical vertebrae

(1) Be able to describe and identify the atlas and axis.

(a) Know the names of their identifying landmarks.

Notes, Pictures & Videos

80 bones of the Axial Skeleton

General Description	Name of Bone	No. of Bones	Additional Information
Cranium (8)	frontal	1	upper front skull bone
	parietal	2	posterior to frontal, left/right
	temporal	2	inferior-lateral to parietal
	sphenoid	1	inner winged bone
	ethmoid	1	inner anterior bone
	occipital	1	bone at the back of skull
Facial bones (14)	mandible	1	lower jawbone
	maxilla	2	upper jawbone
	zygomatic bone	2	cheek bones
	nasal bone	2
	lacrimal bone	2
	palatine	2
	inferior nasal concha	2
	vomer	1
Hyoid	hyoid	1
Ear Ossicles	malleus, incus, stapes	6	2 each
Vertebral Column (26)	cervical vertebrae	7	C1-C7
	thoracic vertebrae	12	T1-T12
	lumbar vertebrae	5	L1-L5
	sacrum	1	5 fused S1 - S5
	coccyx	1	4 fused
Thorax (thoracic cage)	sternum	1
	true ribs (7 pair)	14	vertebrosternal
	false ribs (3 pair)	6	vertebrochondral
	false ribs (floating ribs)	4	vertebral ribs

First: The Skull

Skull: Cranium and Facial Bones

The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones. Some of the bones exist as pairs.

The bones of the skull provide protection for the brain and the organs of vision, taste, hearing, equilibrium, and smell. The bones also provide attachment for muscles that move the head and control facial expressions and chewing.
For some additional information on bones of the cranium, visit the Cranium Crushers Group page!

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate specific characteristics of these bones, while some general features of the skull follow:

Sutures are immovable interlocking joints that join skull bones together.

Figure 1 The right lateral view and anterior view of the skull's bones.
Fontanels are spaces between cranial bones that are filled with fibrous membranes. The spaces provide pliability for the skull when it passes through the birth canal and for brain growth during infancy. Bone growth eventually fills the spaces by age two.
Sutural (Wormian) bones are very small bones that develop within sutures. Their number and location vary.
The cranial vault denotes the top, sides, front, and back of the cranium. The cranial floor (base) denotes the bottom of the cranium.
Cranial fossae are three depressions in the floor of the cranium. These fossae, called the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae, provide spaces that accommodate the shape of the brain.
The nasal cavity is formed by cartilage and several bones. Air entering the cavity is warmed and cleansed by mucus lining the cavity.
Sinuses (paranasal sinuses) are mucus-lined cavities inside cranial and facial bones that surround the nasal cavity. The cavities secrete mucus that drains into the nasal cavity. The cavities also act as resonance chambers that enhance vocal (and singing) quality

A typical vertebra has the following characteristics (see Figure 3 ).

Figure 3 The four regions of the vertebral column.

The body of a vertebra (centrum) is disc-shaped and is the anterior portion. It is the portion that gives strength to the bone.
The vertebral arch is a bony ring behind the vertebral body. The opening in the ring is the vertebral foramen, the passageway for the spinal cord. The vertebral canal is the continuous passageway formed by the vertebral foramina of successive vertebrae.
The pedicle and the laminae form the anterior and posterior sides, respectively, of the vertebral arch.
Seven processes project from the vertebral arch:
Intervertebral discs separate adjacent vertebrae. Each disc consists of an outer ring of fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosus) surrounding a semifluid cushion (nucleus pulposus) that provides elasticity and compressibility.
The First two cervical vertebra are different from the rest of the vertebra. The first one (C1) is called the atlas. It connects to the Occipital condyle. The second one (C2) is called the axis. It allows you to move your head.

The vertebral column is divided into four regions, each region contributing to the alternating concave and convex curves of the spine (see Figure 1 ). As the vertebrae progress down the column, their bodies get more massive, enabling them to bear more weight. The sacrum is a triangular bone below the last lumbar vertebra (see Figure 3 ). It is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae (S1-S5). The coccyx, formed by four fused vertebrae, is a small triangle-shaped bone that attaches to the bottom of the sacrum (see Figure 3 ).

Third: The Thoracic Cage

Thorax

The thoracic cage includes the thoracic vertebrae, sternum, ribs, and costal cartilages (see Figure 4 ). The sternum (breastbone) consists of three fused bones: the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. There are 12 pairs of ribs, all of which attach to their posterior ends to vertebrae. At their anterior ends, they differ as to how they attach, as follows:

Seven pairs of true ribs (vertebrosternal ribs) attach directly to the sternum with hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage.

Figure 4 : The thoracic cage.
Three pairs of false ribs (vertebrochondral ribs) do not attach to the sternum. Rather, they connect (with costal cartilage) to the rib directly above them.
Two pairs of false ribs (floating ribs or vertebral ribs) do not attach to anything at their anterior ends.

Important features of a rib:

The head is the end of the rib that articulates with the vertebral column.
The superior and inferior facets are facets on the head that articulate with the facets of the thoracic vertebrae.
The neck, just beyond the head, bears a tubercle (rounded process) that articulates with the facet of the vertebral transverse process. Part of the tubercle also presents a place of attachment for ligaments.
The costal angle designates the sharp turn of the rib.
The costal groove, a passageway on the inside of the bending rib, provides for blood vessels and intercostals nerves.
The body (shaft) is the major part of the rib- that part beyond the costal angle.
Intercostal spaces, the areas between the ribs, are occupied by the intercostal muscles.

The Axial Skeleton is not to stand alone by itself or we would all be quite a different height. It is connected to the other parts of the body and skeleton via bones, tendons, ligaments and other tissues.

Glossary

AXIAL SKELETON: Division of skeleton composed of the skull, rib cage and vertebrae

Skull:
Frontal bone: Large paired bone located in the superior lateral portion of the skull
Frontal sinus: Cavity within the frontal bone
Supraorbital margin: The superior border, or margin, of the eye socket

Parietal bone: Large paired bone located in the superior lateral portion of the skull

Coronal suture: Runs laterally joining the frontal and parietal bones
Sagittal suture: Runs anterioposteriorally joining the two parietal bones

Temporal bone: Paired bone located on the lateral sides of the skull

Squamosal suture: Runs dorsoventrally joining the temporal and parietal bones
Mandibular fossa: Articulates with the condylar process of the mandible
Temporomandibular joint: Articulation of the mandibular fossa and the condyloid process of the mandible
External auditory meatus: Hole in the temporal bone extending medially to the inner ear
Internal auditory meatus: Short canal in petrous portion of temporal bone extending laterally towards the inner ear
Styloid process: Long sharp process of the temporal bone extending inferiorly
Mastoid process: Rounded process of the temporal bone slightly posterior and inferior to the external auditory meatus
Petrous portion: Dense bony ridge on interior surface of temporal bone
Carotid canal: Located on petrous portion of the temporal bone, anterior to the jugular foramen
Jugalar foramen: Located on inferior, petrous part of the temporal bone posterior to the carotid canal
Zygomatic process: Arch of bone extending anteriorly from the temporal process

Zygomatic bone: Paired bone which participates with other zygomatic process in forming the "cheek bone"
Temporal process: Arch of bone extending posteriorly from the zygomatic bone

Occipital bone: Most posterior and inferior bone of the skull
Lambdoidal suture: Runs laterally joining the occipital and parietal bones
Sutural (wormian) bone: Any small, irregular bone within a cranial suture
Superior nuchal line: Runs horizontally from external occipital protuberance
Foramen magnum: Large opening on the inferior part of the skull
Occipital condyle: Paired rounded process lateral to the foramen magnum
Hypoglossal canal: Paired canal anterior to occipital condyle

Sphenoid bone: Butterfly-shaped bone forming the floor of the cranium
Superior orbital fissure: Fissure between grreater and lesser wings of sphenoid, visible from the orbits
Sella turcica: saddle-like depression posterior to lesser wing
Optic foramen: Paired opening through lesser wing of the sphenoid for optic nerve
Foramen lacerum: Paired opening posterior and lateral to sella turcica
Foramen ovale: Paired oval opening distal to the base of the sella turcica
Foramen rotundum: Paired round opening anterior to the foramen ovale for maxillary division of trigeminal nerve
Foramen Spinosum: Paired opening at the posterior margin of the sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone: Located between the orbits and between sphenoid and nasal bones; forms roof of nasal cavity
Crista galli: Superior projection in the middle of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone
Cribriform plate: Porous bone surrounding the crista galli in the floor of the cranium through which olfactory nerves transverse
Perpendicular plate: Median inferior projection of ethmoid; forms superior nasal septum

Inferior nasal concha: Bone that protrudes into the inferior part of the nasal cavity

Vomer: Bone forming the inferior and posterior portion of the nasal septum

Palatine bone: Posterior portion of the hard palate associated with maxilla

Maxilla: Paired fused bone of the upper jaw and central face
Palatine process: Anterior portion of the hard palate
Infraorbital foramen: Paired opening inferior to the orbit

Lacrimal bone: Paired bone forming part of the medial wall of the orbit
Nasolacrimal canal: Opening in the lacrimal bone allowing passage for the nasolacrimal duct

Nasal bone: Paired bone composing the superior portion of the nose

Mandible: The bone of the lower jaw
Ramus: The vertical portion of the mandible extending from the angle
Coronoid process: Anterior process of the mandibular ramus which provides insertion of the temporalis muscle
Condylar (condyloid) process: The most posterior process of the mandibular ramus which contributes to the temporomandibular joint
Mandibular notch: Separates the coronoid and condyloid processes of the ramus
Mandibular foramen: Paired opening on the medial surface of the mandibular ramus
Mental foramen: Paired opening on the anterolateral aspect of the mandibular body
Alveolus: Socked lined with connective tissue in which a tooth is fastened

Hyoid bone: "U-shaped" bone located in the neck superior to the larynx; tongue muscle attachment

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Vertebra: Basic bone unit of the vertebral column
Body: Anterior portion of vertebra
Pedicle: Posterior projection to vertebral body that supports the lamina
Transverse process: Lateral projections of the vertebra for muscle/ligament attachment
Lamina: Paired arches supported by the pedicles located posterior to the vertebral body
Spinous process: Most posterior projection of the vertebra for muscle/ligament attachment
Vertebral foramen: Opening surrounded by vertebral body and arch through which spinal cord extends
Articular process: Paired (superior and inferior) process which articulates with process of adjacent vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae: C1-C7; Smallest of the vertebrae
Transverse foramen: Paired opening on the transverse process for passage of blood vessels
Atlas: C1, Supports the head
Axis: C2, Pivotal point for atlas and skull

Thoracic vertebrae: 12 total (T1-T12) vertebrae with circular vertebral foramen and long spinous process

Lumbar vertebrae: 5 total (L1-L5) vertebrae with strongly built components for weight bearing

Sacrum: (S1-S5) Composed of 5 fused vertebrae forming posterior wall of pelvis

Coccyx: 4 fused vertebrae forming the tailbone

RIB CAGE

Sternum: Anterior midline anchor to the ribs
Manubrium: Superior portion of the sternum that articulates with the clavicle
Body: Middle portion of the sternum that articulates with T1-T7 rib cartilage
Xiphoid process: Small inferior portion of the sternum

Ribs: 12 Pair, attached to T1-T12 thoracic vertebrae
True ribs: Attached posteriorly to T1-T7 vertebrae and anteriorly to the sternum via costal cartilage
False Ribs: Attached posteriorly to vertebrae T8-T10; they are not directly attached to the sternum
Floating ribs: Attached posteriorly to vertebrae T11-T12 but are not attached to the sternum
Head: Rounded part of rib which articulates with the thoracic vertebrae via two costal facets
Neck: Region of rib between head and tubercle
Tubercle: Bump near the neck of the rib which articulates with vertebral transverse process on costal facet of thoracic vertebrae
Angle: The curved portion of the rib
Shaft: Elongated part of the rib associated anteriorly with costal cartilage

Review Questions

1. How many thoracic vertebrae are there?

2. On which bone is the cristi galli located on?

3. What type of cartilage will you find connecting ribs to the sternum?

4. What type of verterbrae will you find transverse foramen?

5. How many facial bones are there? and can you name them all?

Connections to other body systems

The human skull, consisting of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones, also contains several cavities that house the brain and sensory organs. As shown in the chart below many nerves, arteries, veins, etc. pass through the many foramina of the cranial and facial bones:

Canal, Fissure, or Foramen of the Cranial Bones	Location	Blood Vessels, Nerves, or Structures That Pass Through
Carotid Canal	Petrous portion of temporal bone	Internal carotid artery
Cribriform Foramina	Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone	Olfactory nerves (CN I)
Foramen Lacerum	Between petrous portion temporal bone, sphenoid bone, and occipital bone	None
Foramen Magnum	Occipital bone	Vertebral arteries; spinal cord, accessory nerve (CN XI)
Foramen Ovale	Greater wing of the sphenoid bone	Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)
Foramen Rotundum	Greater wing of the sphenoid bone	Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
Foramen Spinosum	Greater wing of the sphenoid bone	Middle meningeal vessels
Hypoglossal Canal	Anteromedial to occipital condyle	Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Inferior Orbital Fissure	Junction of the maxilla, sphenoid, and zygomatic bones	Infraorbital nerve (branch of CN V2)
Jugular Foramen	Between temporal bone and occipital bone (posterior to carotid canal)	Internal jugular vein; glossalpharyngeal nerve (CN IX), vagus nerve (CN X), and accessory nerve (CN XI)
Mastoid Foramen	Posterior to mastoid process	Mastoid emissary veins
Optic Foramen	Posteromedial part of orbit in lesser wing of sphenoid bone	Optic nerve (CN II)
Stylomastoid Foramen	Between mastoid and styloid processes	Facial nerve (CN VII)
Superior Orbital Fissure	Posterior part of orbit between greater and lesser wings of sphenoid bone	Ophthalmic veins; oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), ophthalmic branch of trigeminal nerve (CN V1), and abducens nerve (CN VI)
Supraorbital Foramen	Supraorbital margin of orbit in frontal bone	Supraorbital artery; supraorbital nerve (branch of CN V1)

Canals and Foramina of the Facial Bones

Canal or Foramen	Location	Blood Vessels or Nerves that Pass Through
Greater and Lesser Palatine Foramina	Palatine bone	Palatine vessels; greater and lesser palatine nerves (branches of CN V2)
Incisive Foramen	Posterior to incisor teeth in hard palate of maxilla	Branches of nasopalatine nerve (branch of CN V2)
Infraorbital Foramen	Inferior to orbit in maxilla	Infraorbital artery: infraorbital nerve (branch of CN V2)
Lacrimal Groove	Lacrimal Bone	Nasolacrimal duct
Mandibular Foramen	Medial surface of ramus of mandible	Inferior alveolar blood vessels; inferior alveolar nerve (branch of CN V3)
Mental Foramen	Inferior to second premolar on anterolateral surface of mandible	Mental blood vessels; mental nerve (branch of CN V3)

Thoracic Cage and Vertebral Column

Thoracic Cage

The thoracic cage, formed by the costal cartilages and sternum anteriorly, the thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, and the ribs laterally serve as protection to a couple of the human body's most vital organs. The heart and the lungs are in-caged and protected by the thoracic cage. The trachea and esophagus are also protected by the thoracic cage.

Vertebral Column

When all stacked the vertebrae form a superior to inferior vertebral canal that houses and protect the crucial spinal cord. It also however, provides passage way for the spinal nerves through the intervertebral foramina to the other parts of the body. A fracture of the vertebrae and damage of spinal cord can lead to paralization of the lower extremities (paraplegic), or to both the lower and upper extremities (quadriplegic)

Skeletal System Intro

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